Structure and Function of Liver

The Structure and Functions of Liver 

The liver is the largest solid organ in the body. It removes toxins from the body's blood supply, maintains healthy blood sugar levels, regulates blood clotting, and performs hundreds of other vital functions. It is located beneath the rib cage in the right upper abdomen.

Key Facts

The liver filters all of the blood in the body and breaks down poisonous substances, such as alcohol and drugs.

• The liver also produces bile, a fluid that helps digest fats and carry away waste.

• The liver consists of four lobes, which are each made up of eight sections and thousands of lobules (or small lobes).

Structure

The liver consists of four lobes: the larger right lobe and left lobe, and the smaller caudate lobe and quadrate lobe. The left and right lobe are divided by the falciform ("sickle-shaped" in Latin) ligament, which connects the liver to the abdominal wall. The liver's lobes can be further divided into eight segments, which are made up of thousands of lobules (small lobes). Each of these lobules has a duct flowing toward the common hepatic duct, which drains bile from the liver.

Parts

The following are some of the most important individual parts of the liver:

• Common Hepatic Duct: A tube that carries bile out of the liver. It is formed from the intersection of the right and left hepatic ducts.

•Falciform Ligament: A thin, fibrous ligament that separates the two lobes of the liver and connects it to the abdominal wall.

• Glisson's Capsule: A layer of loose connective tissue that surrounds the liver and its related arteries and ducts.

•Hepatic Artery: The main blood vessel that supplies the liver with oxygenated blood.

• Hepatic Portal Vein: The blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen to the liver.

• Lobes: The anatomical sections of the liver.

• Lobules: Microscopic building blocks of the liver.

• Peritoneum: A membrane covering the liver that forms the exterior.

Functions of the Liver

The liver is an essential organ of the body that performs over 500 vital functions. These include removing waste products and foreign substances from the bloodstream, regulating blood sugar levels, and creating essential nutrients. Here are some of its most important functions:

•Albumin Production: Albumin is a protein that keeps fluids in the bloodstream from leaking into surrounding tissue. It also carries hormones, vitamins, and enzymes through the body.

• Bile Production: Bile is a fluid that is critical to the digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestine.

• Filters Blood: All the blood leaving the stomach and intestines passes through the liver, which removes toxins, byproducts, and other harmful substances.

• Regulates Amino Acids: The production of

proteins depend on amino acids. The liver

makes sure amino acid levels in the

bloodstream remain healthy.

•Regulates Blood Clotting: Blood clotting coagulants are created using vitamin K, which can only be absorbed with the help of bile, a fluid the liver produces.

•Resists Infections: As part of the filtering process, the liver also removes bacteria from the bloodstream.

• Stores Vitamins and Minerals: The liver stores significant amounts of vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12, as well as iron and copper.

• Processes Glucose: The liver removes excess glucose (sugar) from the bloodstream and stores it as glycogen. As needed, it can convert glycogen back into glucose.

Anatomy of the Liver

The liver is reddish-brown and shaped approximately like a cone or a wedge, with the small end above the spleen and stomach and the large end above the small intestine. The entire organ is located below the lungs in the right upper abdomen. It weighs between 3 and 3.5 pounds.

Structure and Function of Heart

Human heart is the main organ of your cardiovascular system, a network of blood vessels that pumps blood throughout the body. It also works with other body systems to control human heart rate and blood pressure.

The heart is a fist-sized organ that pumps blood throughout the body. It's the primary organ of human circulatory system.

Heart contains four main sections (chambers) made of muscle and powered by electrical impulses. The brain and nervous system direct the heart's function.

Chambers of the Heart 

The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers:

-Right atrium

-Right ventricle

-Left atrium

-Left ventricle

The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to generate.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.

Valves of the Heart

Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid flowing in one direction and the heart is no exception. The heart has two types of valves that keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. The valves between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid valves), while those at the bases of the large vessels leaving the ventricles are called semilunar valves.

The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid, or mitral, valve. The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve.

When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.

Pathway of Blood through the Heart

While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then through the left side, it is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at the same time. The heart works as two pumps, one on the right and one on the left, working simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.

Blood Supply to the Myocardium

The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients to function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove waste products.

The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the walls of the myocardium. After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it enters a system of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of the cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium.

Diarrhoea

Loose, watery stools that occur more frequently than usual.

Diarrhoea is usually caused by a virus, or sometimes, contaminated food. Less frequently, it can be a sign of another disorder, such as inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome.

COMMON CAUSES

Diarrhoea can have causes that aren't due to underlying disease. Examples include a liquid diet, food intolerance, stress, anxiety or use of laxatives.

For informational purposes only. Consult your local medical authority for advice.

Types of diarrhoea

There are three clinical types of diarrhoea: acute watery diarrhoea - lasts several hours or days, and includes cholera; acute bloody diarrhoea - also called dysentery; and. persistent diarrhoea - lasts 14 days or longer.

Prevention 

Interventions to prevent diarrhoea, including safe drinking-water, use of improved sanitation and hand washing with soap can reduce disease risk. Diarrhoea should be treated with oral rehydration solution (ORS), a solution of clean water, sugar and salt.

Monkeypox

Monkeypox is a viral infection that manifests a week or two after exposure with fever and other non-specific symptoms, and then produces a rash with lesions that usually last for 2-4 weeks before drying up, crusting and falling off [15] While monkeypox can cause large numbers of lesions, in the current outbreak, some patients experience only a single lesion in the mouth or on the genitals, making it more difficult to differentiate from other infections.[26] In infections before the current outbreak, 1-3 percent of people with known infections have died (without treatment). Cases in children and immunocompromised people are more likely to be severe.[6]

Monkeypox spreads through close, personal, often skin-to-skin contact. The disease can spread through direct contact with rashes, or body fluids from an infected person, by touching objects and fabrics that have been used by someone with monkeypox or through respiratory secretions.1271 Given the unexpected and vast geographical spread of the disease, the actual number of cases is likely to be underestimated [28] While anyone can get monkeypox, to date the vast majority of confirmed cases outside of the endemic regions in Africa occurred in young or middle aged men who have sex with men (MSM) who had recent sexual contact with new or multiple partners. [29][30] On 28 July, the WHO Director General advised MSM to limit exposure by reducing the number of sexual partners, reconsidering sex with new partners, and maintaining contact details to allow for epidemiological follow-up.[31] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has

emphasized the importance of reducing stigma in communicating about the demographic aspects of monkeypox, specifically with regards to gay and bisexual men.[32]

PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIES REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

According to WHO reports , out of global burden of ill health, reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20%for women and 14% for men.

1.family planning.the programme of family planning was initiated in 1951 to achieve total reproductive health. Main problem of India is its excess population which is directly connected with reproductive health.

2.maternal health. Early child bearing can have helth risk for women and their infants. A girl before 18years of age is not matured with respect to her reproductive system to bear a child. At least tow years gap is necessary before going for the second issue.

3.proper medical care. The WHO estimates that each year 358000 women die due to complications related to pregnancy and childbirth.99% of theses deaths occor in poorest countries of the world. Most of these deaths can be avoided with improving women's access to quality care from skilled medical professionals before, during and after pregnancy and child birth.

4.Awarness. Audio -visual and print media, government and and non-government agencies are creating awareness among people about reproductive health. Parents, close rei, friends ans teachers also have a mejor role in giving these information.

5.sex education. Sex education should be introduced and encouraged in schools to provide right information about myself and misconceptions about sex related issues.

6.Access to reproductive and sex helth. Family planning counseling, pre-natal care, safe delivery, post-natal care, appropriate treatment of infertit, prevention of about, treatment of sexually transmitted disease, responsible parents hood, service against HIV/AIDS, breast cancer should be made available.

7.Birth control device. Fertile couple and people of active sex life should know about available birth control device.

8. Prevention of sex abuse and sex related crime. These are social evils which can be controlled by proper law and order as well as pablic awareness. This will build up a reproductivity health society. 

9. Misuse of Amniocentesis. Amniocentesis is a method of sex determination of of fortus.chromosomal study of amniotic fluid cells can determine the sex of the foetus and also to identify any abnormality in number be choromosomes to detect any serious incurable congenital defect so that the foetus may be aborted. But, this technique is being used to kill normal female foetus.it is legally banned to avoid female foreticide.

10.RCH. improved programmes covering wider reproductive - related areas are currently in operation under the popular name 'Reproductive and child Health care (RCH) programmes. Creating awareness among people about various reproductive related aspects and providing facilities and support for building up a reproductivity health society are the major tasks under these programmes.

GENDER BASED DIVISION OF LABOUR IN FAMILY

Gender-based division of labour in the family

In a household or a family, men and women both work. But they do not do the work as they like. They do the work they are allotted to do on the basis of their gender. This sex-based allotment of work is called gender division of labour. Gender division of labour is based neither on capacity nor on rationality, but on age old practices and belief systems. When we claim that our society has advanced, that women have occupied several public spaces, that they are visible in almost all important fields like Board Rooms, space missions, and that they have emerged as political leaders in this country at village and the national levels (Palli to Parliament), let us ask ourselves if the gender division of labour in the family has been affected by these success stories?

In real life, the number of women joining the employment market has gone up. A large number of women have joined the workforce. But it has not relieved them from domestic work. They are now "doubly burdened". The situation of women doing white collar jobs is different from that of women who earn their daily wage. Millions of women struggle to perform their domestic chores while doing work outside home. This places a heavy burden on them.

Women's work at home is invisible. Shockingly, only paid or remunerated activities are defined as work. A woman who does the bulk of the work in the family is never paid. So, her contributions are never considered as work. Her economic contributions to the maintenance and development of the family and its members go unrecognised. Care has long been considered to be the 'natural' responsibility of women. Women's work within families is variously known as "domestic work", "reproductive labour", "carework" and "emotional labour". These works remain invisible, are under-recognized, undervalued and unremunerated. It is not taken into account in the National GDP Account or the census enumeration of work.

Thus, there are many areas of human activity which are excluded from economic measurement. The unpaid services include household maintenance, subsistence agriculture, voluntary work, family sustenance activities and reproductive work. All these are undertaken by women. A simple example given below can explain the difference between visible and invisible work:

The teacher here can also cite the example of recognized productive and unrecognized productive work of "pickle making". All over India, women at home make different kinds of pickle, which is a side dish and for some it becomes a principal dish. When this pickle is made by women as part of a cottage industry or S.H.G. endeavor and sold in the market, it acquires an economic value. Here the work becomes paid work. On the other hand, the pickle made by womenfolk for home consumption becomes a regular consumption item without monetary value and is unpaid, unrecognized and invisible.

As per the U.N. Report, 2020

On an average day, women globally spend about three times more hours on unpaid domestic and care work than men. This includes cooking, cleaning, fetching water and firewood and other non-market essential daily tasks within households. These works go unpaid.

GENDER PRACTICES IN FAMILY

Gendered practices in the family:

Men and women together constitute a family. Both contribute to its functioning and development. Thus, in a family, men and women complement and supplement each other. But does this really happen in our families? Even today, in many families, a woman's identity is derived from that of her father, and the father is recognised as the so-called head of the family.

Is it not a common practice noticed by all of us that when a child excels in any field, people ask who his/her father is and the child's identity is traced through his/her father?

But if the mother has established her identity through a job she does or by excelling in some field, then only we say the child's identity is derived from that of the mother.

• When a field or house or any property's ownership is traced, it is again through a male person. Women who do not earn an income own hardly any property.

Sons and daughters are nature's gifts to families. But often they are treated unequally. In many households, sons are regarded as more valuable than daughters. Accordingly, their birth is celebrated with more pomp and their needs are given priority over those of daughter. This makes boys more privileged in comparison to girls. While a son is given better educational opportunities, given better nutrition and access to health facilities, a daughter's access to such facilities is severely restricted. These lay the foundation for gender-based discrimination.

Similarly, the socialisation process varies for children on the basis of their gender. A daughter is taught to display some typical

traits like submissiveness, shyness, and is required to be less demanding, more empathetic and accommodating while a boy is taught to be smart, aggressive, and demanding. Family members insist on girls getting used to doing household chores and taking up sibling care responsibilities from their very childhood. During adulthood, daughters face many restrictions. The world shrinks for them while it expands for boys. The freedom and autonomy of daughters are severely curtailed and sons are allowed to enjoy more freedom and autonomy.

No doubt, today, the scenario is changing. Girls are enrolled in larger numbers in schools and colleges. They excel academically. This has no doubt changed family attitudes towards girls' education. In the urban-based affluent families, equality of opportunity in education, health services are increasingly enjoyed by girls. But in the rural, poverty-stricken families, many girls fail to complete their school education. The higher becomes the level of education; the lower becomes the share of girls in rural areas. Even if they get enrolled in schools and colleges, parents send them to the educational institutions run by the government where investment is almost zero. The girls still bear the burden of doing chores at home, which affects their academic performance while boys are allowed to go to better educational institutions and are totally freed from household responsibilities. Thus, families do not provide equal opportunities to boys and girls. This is a gender discriminatory practice.

Women provide food and comfort to all in the family as wives and mothers. As wives, women seem to sacrifice their own comforts and happiness. They eat after everyone else in the family have eaten and eat whatever little is left. They are the prime care givers in families. They render services like cooking meals, collecting fuel, water, taking care of children, husbands, elderly members and pets. They spend sleepless nights to tend members of the family when they fall ill.

Gender practices of our families have unequal expectations from men and women. Men are not expected to do the household chores even when they have free time. But, women are expected to do all household chores. We take them for granted. We hardly care for their wishes, aspirations and needs. Below are some situations which can make you realise the plight of women in your families and think of some small changes that can bring a difference to their situation.

There are four cakes and five members in a family. Who sacrifices her share? It is always the wife and the mother.

When, during a cele- bration, men enjoy them- selves talking, sitting together, playing cards, where do you find the woman of the family? - She heads for the kitchen to feed everybody.

Imagine the lunch and the dinner time. While every-

Just think what the following actions can do:

Can we not cut the four cakes into five pieces and share them with our sisters, mothers and wives?

During a celebration, if we can share the respon sibilities, our mothers can also enjoy playing, singing and sitting with us..

If we can help our mothers with the cooking, chopping vegetables,